Antiga Mesopotâmia para Crianças Comércio e Comércio A terra da Mesopotâmia não tinha um monte de recursos naturais, ou pelo menos eles não têm os que estão em demanda durante esse período de tempo. Assim, para obter os itens que precisavam os mesopotâmicos tinham de comércio. Na parte sul da Mesopotâmia, foram construídas docas ao longo dos lados dos rios para que os navios pudessem facilmente atracar e descarregar seus bens de comércio. Os comerciantes trocaram comida, roupa, jóias, vinho e outros bens entre as cidades. Às vezes uma caravana chegava do norte ou do leste. A chegada de uma caravana de comércio ou navio de comércio foi um momento de celebração. Para comprar ou trocar esses bens, os antigos Mesopotâmios usavam um sistema de troca. Mas também usavam dinheiro. Eles didnt utilizar papel moeda ou moedas. Usavam cevada para comércio local. Porque a cevada era pesada, eles usaram chumbo, cobre, bronze, estanho, prata e ouro para quotbuyquot coisas longe de sua área local. Você teve que emprestar cevada de um banqueiro de cevada. O banqueiro cobrava juros muito altos. Explore a Antiga Mesopotâmia Todos os Direitos Reservados Tenha um grande ano As Aztecas Mexicas As Aztecas Mexicas foram os povos nativos americanos que dominaram o norte do México na época da conquista espanhola liderada por Hernan CORTES no início do século XVI. De acordo com suas próprias lendas, eles se originaram de um lugar chamado Aztlan, em algum lugar no norte ou no noroeste do México. Naquela época, os astecas (que se referiam a si mesmos como os mexicas ou tenochcas) eram uma pequena agregação náuatl-falante de povos tribais que viviam nas margens da civilizada Mesoamérica. Em algum momento no século 12 eles embarcaram em um período de vagar e no século XIII estabeleceu-se na bacia central de Meacutexico. Continuamente desalojados pelas pequenas cidades-estado que se combatiam mutuamente em alianças mutáveis, os astecas finalmente encontraram refúgio em pequenas ilhas no Lago Texcoco onde, em 1325, fundaram a cidade de TENOCHTITLAN (atual Cidade do México). O termo asteca, originalmente associado ao migrante mexica, é hoje um termo coletivo, aplicado a todos os povos ligados pelo comércio, costume, religião e linguagem a esses fundadores. Guerreiros sem medo e construtores pragmáticos, os astecas criaram um império durante o século XV que foi superado em tamanho nas Américas apenas pelo dos incas no Peru. Como os primeiros textos e a arqueologia moderna continuam a revelar, para além das suas conquistas e de muitas das suas práticas religiosas, houve muitas conquistas positivas: a formação de uma sociedade altamente especializada e estratificada e uma administração imperial, a expansão de uma rede comercial e O desenvolvimento ea manutenção de uma economia agrícola sofisticada, cuidadosamente ajustada à terra e ao cultivo de uma perspectiva intelectual e religiosa que fazia da sociedade parte integrante do cosmos. A ronda anual de ritos e cerimônias nas cidades de Tenochtitlan e Tetzcoco vizinho, e sua arte simbólica e arquitetura, deu expressão a uma antiga consciência da interdependência da natureza e da humanidade. Os astecas continuam sendo os mais extensamente documentados de todas as civilizações ameríndias na época do contato europeu no século XVI. Os frades, os soldados, os historiadores e os eruditos espanhóis da ascendência indiana ou misturada deixaram registros invaluable de todos os aspectos da vida. Essas fontes etno-históricas, ligadas a pesquisas arqueológicas modernas e estudos de etnólogos, lingüistas, historiadores e historiadores da arte, retratam a formação eo florescimento de um complexo estado imperial. Aztec Home Pages Outras Páginas Astecas Calendário Asteca Os dias do calendário asteca são os seguintes: Vinte Dias do Mês Asteca Serpente - Coatl Lagarto - Cuetzpallin Casa - Calli Vento - Ehecatl Crocodilo - Cipactli Flor - Xochitl Chuva - Quiahuitl Flint - Tecpatl Movimento - Ollin Abutre - Cozcacuauhtli Águia - Cuauhtle Jaguar - Ocelotl Cane - Acatl Erva - Malinalli Macaco - Ozomatli Cão Sem Pêlos - Itzquintli Água - Atl Coelho - Tochtli Cervo - Mazatl Crânio - Miquiztli Aztec Gods A religião era extremamente importante na vida asteca. Eles adoravam centenas de deuses e deusas, cada qual governava uma ou mais atividades humanas ou aspectos da natureza. O povo tinha muitos deuses agrícolas porque sua cultura era baseada fortemente na agricultura também incluíam elementos naturais e heróis ancestrais. Esses deuses incluíam: CENTEOTL. O deus do milho. COATLICUE - Ela da saia da serpente. EHECATL. O deus do vento. HUEHUETEOTL. A deidade velha, velha, era um dos nomes do culto do fogo, entre o mais velho em Mesoamerica. A manutenção dos incêndios nos templos era um dever primordial do sacerdócio, e a renovação do fogo foi identificada com a renovação do tempo em si. HUITZILOPOCHTLI. (O deus warsun e guardião especial de Tenochtitlan), o deificado herói-guerreiro ancestral, era o padroeiro mexica-asteca por excelência. Seu templo (ao lado daquele de Tlaloc) na pirâmide principal era o foco de sacrifícios temíveis de prisioneiros capturados por guerreiros astecas. As cabeças das vítimas eram enfiadas como troféus em uma grande prateleira, a Tzompantli, erguida no recinto abaixo. MICTLANTECUHTLE. Deus dos mortos. OMETECUHLTI e sua esposa OMECIHUATL criaram toda a vida no mundo. QUETZALCOATL. (O deus da civilização e da aprendizagem) quetzal (pena) serpente, tinha dezenas de associações. Era o nome de uma divindade, um título real, o nome de um lendário padre-governante, um título de alto cargo sacerdotal. Mas seu significado mais fundamental como uma força natural é simbolizado pela escultura de uma serpente serpenteada enrolada que se levanta de uma base cujo lado de baixo é cinzelado com os símbolos da divindade de terra e Tlaloc. A imagem da serpente que levanta-se da terra e que carrega a água em sua cauda é explicada na língua de Nahuatl por uma descrição de Quetzalcoatl nos termos da ascensão de um thunderstorm poderoso que varre para baixo, com o vento que levanta a poeira antes de trazer a chuva. TEZCATLIPOCA. (Deus da Noite e Feitiçaria) Espelho Fumador (obsidiana), caracterizado como a deidade suprema mais poderosa, foi associado com a noção de destino. Seu culto era particularmente identificado com a realeza, pois Tezcatlipoca era o objeto das longas e reverentes orações nos ritos da realeza. TLALOC. A divindade da chuva, pertencia a outro culto mais memorável e universal do México antigo. O nome pode ser asteca, mas a idéia de um deus da tempestade especialmente identificado com santuários de montanha e chuva que dá vida era certamente tão antiga quanto Teotihuacan. O templo principal desta divindade principal estava localizado no topo do Monte. Tlaloc, onde foram sacrificadas vítimas humanas para fertilizar as rochas aquáticas dentro do recinto sagrado. Em Tenochtitlan outro templo de Tlaloc compartilhou a plataforma sobre a pirâmide principal dupla, uma montanha simbólica. TONATIUH. O sol, era percebido como uma fonte primária de vida cujos devotos especiais eram os guerreiros. Os guerreiros foram encarregados da missão de dar ao sol vítimas de sacrifício. Um altar especial ao sol foi usado para sacrifícios em ritos de coroação, um fato que significa a importância da divindade. O caminho leste-oeste do sol determinou o eixo ritual principal no projeto das cidades astecas. TONANTZIN. Honrada avó, estava entre os muitos nomes da divindade-terra feminina. TEZCATLIPOCA. Um deus todo-poderoso Tonatiuh, o deus do sol. XILONEN. Jovem orelha de milho e Chicomecoatl, sete serpentes, eram divindades principais de milho, representando o principal alimento básico dos povos mesoamericanos. XIPE TOTEC. O deus da primavera e o rebrote. XIUHTECUHTLE o deus do fogo. Imperadores astecas A seguinte é uma lista de imperadores astecas: CUAUHTEMOC - (Ele que decends como uma águia.) 1520-1521 Cuauhtemoc, c.1495-1525, tornou-se governante do AZTECS em 1521, durante o cerco de TENOCHTITLAN, e levou o Final desesperada resistência daquela cidade contra os conquistadores espanhóis. Depois de semanas de luta de rua, ele se rendeu a Hernan CORTES. Este ato marcou o fim do império asteca eo início do domínio espanhol no México. Cuauhtemoc foi primeiramente tratado amavelmente pelos espanhóis, prisioneiro então e torturado, e pendurado finalmente durante a marcha de Cortess a Honduras, em uma carga de complot traição. Um túmulo abaixo da igreja em seu lugar de nascimento, Ixcateopan em Guerrero, é dito para conter seus remains, mas não todos os scholars aceitam esta attribution. p Livros, originais, e escrita Aztec Berdan, Frances F. e Anawalt, Patricia, eds. O Codex Mendoza, 4 vols. (1992) Berdan, Frances. Astecas do México Central: Uma Sociedade Imperial. Holt, 1982. Reconstrução etnográfica da cultura asteca pré-conquista. Carrasco, David, ed. Para mudar de lugar: Aztec Ceremonial Landscapes (1991) Caso, Alfonso. Os astecas, as pessoas do sol. Oklahoma, 1978. Trans. Lowell Dunham. Norman: Universidade da imprensa de Oklahoma, 1958. Contends que os astecas eram primeiramente povos religiosos e viveram conformemente. Castillo, Bernal Diaz, A Descoberta e Conquista do México, trans. Por A. P. Maudsley (1956) Chimalpain s Diferentes Historias Originales de los Reinos de Culhuacán y Meacutexico y de Otras Provincias Clendinnen, Inga. Astecas: uma interpretação. Cambridge, 1991. Descreve a vida dos astecas comuns. Cortes, Hernan, Cartas do México, trad. (Uma série de cinco cartas escritas pelo conquistador ao rei Carlos V, publicado em espanhol por Porruacutea Hermanos e em inglês por Norton Co., como traduzido por J. Bayard Morris) Davies, Nigel. As Aztecas: Uma História. Oklahoma, 1980 1986. História política que mede 400 anos de império antes da conquista espanhola. Del Castillo, Berna Diaz. Descoberta e Conquista do México. New York: Farrar, Straus e Cudahy, 1956. Duran, o livro de Diego dos deuses e dos ritos eo calendário antigo (traduzido por Doris Heyden e por Fernando Horcasitas em uma edição 1971 pela universidade da imprensa de Oklahoma) Hassig, Ross. Guerra Asteca: Expansão Imperial e Controle Político. Oklahoma, 1988. Um exame do Império Asteca em termos de suas próprias metas e objetivos. Karen, Ruth. Serpente Emplumada: A Ascensão e Queda dos Astecas. Four Winds, 1979. As origens da civilização, organização cultural brutal e conquista militar por espanhóis. Le, Miguel. A imagem asteca do Self e da sociedade. Ed. J. Jorge Klow de Alva. Salt Lake City: Universidade de Utah Press, 1992. Leon-Portilla, Miguel. Imagem asteca do Self e da sociedade. Utah, 1992. Uma Introdução à Cultura Nahua (subtítulo). Leon-Portilla, Miguel, ed. As lanças quebradas: Uma conta aztec da conquista de México. Beacon, 1962. Traduções de uma seleção de relatos indígenas da conquista. Leon-Portilla, Pensamento e Cultura Azteca de Miguel (Univ. Oklahoma Press, 1963 várias impressões), Uma análise clássica da mente asteca, uma tradução dos autores 1956 La FilosofiacuteaNahuatl (UNAM, Cidade do México). Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo. Aztecas. Rizzoli, 1989. Desenha em evidências arqueológicas e etno-históricas. As poderosas astecas. National Geographic, 1981. Resumo ilustrado de suas glórias de curta duração. Moctezuma, Eduardo Matos. O Grande Templo dos Astecas. Trans. Doris Heyden. Nova Iorque: Thames e Hudson, Ltd. 1988. Soustelle, Jacques s A Vida Cotidiana dos Aztecas e Viacutesperas da Conquista (1956, Fundo de Cultura Econoacutemica, Cidade do México, muitas impressões), uma tradução da obra francesa original publicada em 1955. Tezozomoc, Fernando Alvarado s Croacutenica Mexicayotl (1975, UNAM, Cidade do México). Townsend, Richard F. Os Aztecas (1992) Weaver, Muriel Porter. Os astecas, maia e seus predecessores Arqueologia da Mesoamérica. New York: Seminar Press, 1972. Mais sobre este assunto: Indios Aztecas Disclaimer: A American Indian Heritage Foundation ou Indians. org não endossar pessoalmente ou apoiar qualquer um dos comentários feitos neste artigo. Voltar à lista de - Literatura dos povos indígenas Cultura e sociedade de Aztec Os astecas eram um povo mesoamericano pré-colombiano do México central nos séculos XIV, XV e XVI. Chamavam-se Mexica. A República do México e sua capital, Cidade do México, derivam seus nomes da palavra Mexica. A capital do império asteca foi Tenochtitlan, construído em ilha levantada no Lago Texcoco. Cidade do México é construído sobre as ruínas de Tenochtitlan. A colonização espanhola das Américas chegou ao continente durante o reinado de Huey Tlatoani. Moctezuma II (Montezuma II). Em 1521, Hernán Cortés e um exército aliado de índios americanos que superavam em muito os aztecas defensores, conquistaram os astecas por meio de guerra germinal, guerra de cerco, guerra psicológica e combate direto. De acordo com a sua própria história, quando os mexicas chegaram ao vale do Anahuac (vale do México) ao redor do lago Texcoco, os grupos que viviam lá os consideravam incivilizados. Os mexicas emprestaram grande parte da sua cultura aos antigos toltecas, que parecem ter confundido pelo menos parcialmente com a civilização mais antiga de Teotihuacan. Para os mexicas, os toltecas foram os criadores de toda a cultura Toltecayotl foi um sinônimo de cultura. As lendas mexicas identificam os toltecas e o culto de Quetzalcoatl com a mítica cidade de Tollan, que também identificaram com o mais antigo Teotihuacan. O centro da civilização asteca foi o Vale do México, uma enorme bacia oval cerca de 7.500 metros acima do nível do mar. O império asteca incluiu muitas cidades e cidades, especialmente no Vale do México. A maior cidade do império era a capital, Tenochtitlan. Tenochititlan A cidade do Capitólio de Astecas - Pirâmides Os primeiros colonos construíram jangadas de troncos, em seguida, cobriu-los com lama e plantou sementes para criar raízes e desenvolver terrenos mais sólidos para a construção de casas nesta terra pantanosa. Canais também foram cortados através do pântano de modo que uma típica casa asteca tinha a sua volta para um canal com uma canoa amarrada na porta. A história da ascensão dos astecas ao poder é inspiradora, e é uma das histórias mais notáveis da história do mundo. Eles eram um grupo relativamente desconhecido de pessoas que entraram no Vale do México durante os séculos XII e XIII A. D. e se levantou para ser o maior poder nas Américas, quando os espanhóis chegaram, no século XVI. Pouco se sabe dos primeiros astecas, eles não mantiveram um registro escrito. Sua história foi transmitida de boca em boca de uma geração para outra. A lenda diz que vieram de uma ilha chamada Aztlan, que significa Lugar Branco - Lugar das Garças. No códice asteca Tira de la Peregrinacion, comumente chamado de Migração Scrolls. Os rolos têm os astecas deixando Aztlan, que foi descrito como uma ilha em um lago com Chicomoztoc retratado como sete templos no centro da ilha. Os astecas achavam que eram o povo escolhido de Huitzilopochtli. Os astecas acreditavam Huitzilopochtli seu deus de guerra era seu protetor, como eles tinham procurar a sua terra prometida. Em algum momento durante o 12o século XIII os astecas straggled no vale de México, conduzido por seu chieftain Tenoch. Eram um povo pobre, esfarrapado, que sobreviveu com vermes, cobras e comida roubada. Eles eram ódio e rejeitados por todos os habitantes do vale, por seus hábitos bárbaros e incultos. Eles foram conduzidos de um local para outro. No início do século XIV, Huitzilopochtli disse a Tenoch que levaria seu povo a um lugar de refúgio em uma ilha pantanosa no Lago Texcoco. Quando chegaram a seu destino, deveriam procurar uma águia empoleirada num cacto, que crescesse de uma rocha ou caverna cercada de água. Nesse local, eles deveriam construir sua cidade e honrar Huitzilopochtli com sacrifícios humanos. A cidade que construíram foi chamada Tenochtitlan, a cidade de Tenoch. Nos estágios iniciais de Tenochtitlan, desenvolvimento, vida asteca era muito difícil em sua localização indesejável. Tenochtitlan estava localizado em uma ilha pantanosa com recursos limitados, eles construíram algumas cabanas de palha e palha, e alguns pequenos templos. Os astecas teriam que trabalhar constantemente para manter uma cidade em terra pantanosa. Havia também tensões contínuas entre os astecas e os povos vizinhos no continente que os desprezavam. Apesar destes obstáculos, os astecas trabalharam duro para melhorar a qualidade de suas vidas. Eles adotaram um sistema agrícola de cultivo chamado Chinampas. E em um curto período de tempo, a terra foi transformada em uma ilha fértil e altamente produtiva. À medida que o império asteca se expandia, artesãos especializados e trabalhadores comuns eram trazidos a Tenochtitlan para expandir a cidade. Desde que foi construído em terra do pântano, as estacas de madeira grandes foram conduzidas na terra macia para fornecer fundamentos seguros para os edifícios novos. Eles foram capazes de usar a pedra Tezontli para construir os edifícios no terreno instável. Apesar dessas precauções, os templos e palácios maiores geralmente afundavam abaixo do nível do solo. Como resultado, o prédio mais antigo foi continuamente reparado ou reconstruído com as estruturas mais recentes construídas sobre o núcleo mais antigo. Em 1376, os astecas sabiam que tinham de escolher um imperador de linhagem real, para ganhar o respeito de seus vizinhos. Com o gênio político, escolheram um homem com o nome de Acamapichtli como seu imperador. Ele estava relacionado com os últimos governantes de Culhuacan, e sua linhagem se estendeu de volta no tempo ao grande governante tolteca Quetzalcoatl. Com a seleção de Acamapichtli como o primeiro verdadeiro imperador asteca, os seus puderam reivindicar a descendência dos grandes toltecas. Durante o século XV a força militar dos astecas aumentou. Eles cresceram de uma pequena tribo de mercenários em uma poderosa e altamente disciplinada força militar. Eles também formaram alianças com seus poderosos vizinhos Texcoco e Tacuba, conhecida como a Triple Alliance. Era uma época para construir e a cidade Tenochtitlan crescer e prosperar. No final da dominação de Tenochtitlans, em 1520, tinham sido feitas 38 províncias tributárias conquistadas, que tiveram que fazer pagamentos. No entanto, algumas das tribos nas fronteiras permaneceram fortemente independentes. Isso facilitou para o capitão espanhol, Cortez para derrotá-los. Os padres relataram sinais de desgraça, mas Montezuma, o governante asteca, pensou que Cortez era um deus que retornava. Quando os espanhóis viram os presentes de ouro que Moctezuma lhes ofereceu como presentes, quiseram conquistar a cidade. Os espanhóis derrotaram os astecas e os católicos sentiram que era seu dever destruir qualquer vestígio dos astecas. Os poucos astecas que permanecem têm mantido sua cultura hoje. Azteca é um termo usado para se referir a determinados grupos étnicos do México central, particularmente aqueles grupos que falavam a língua náhuatl e que conseguiram dominação política e militar em grandes partes da Mesoamérica nos séculos XIV, XV e XVI, período referido como Pós-Clássico tardio na cronologia mesoamericana. Muitas vezes o termo asteca se refere exclusivamente ao povo de Tenochtitlan, situado em uma ilha no Lago Texcoco, que se chamavam Mexica Tenochca ou Colhua-Mexica. Às vezes também inclui os habitantes de Tenochtitlans duas principais cidades aliadas, as Acolhuas de Texcoco e os Tepanecs de Tlacopan, que juntamente com os Mexica formaram a Triple Aliança Azteca, que também se tornou conhecida como Império Asteca. Em outros contextos, pode referir-se a todas as várias cidades-estado e seus povos, que compartilham grande parte de sua história étnica, bem como muitos traços culturais importantes com os Mexica, Acolhua e Tepanecs e que, como eles, também falavam a língua náhuatl. Neste sentido, é possível falar sobre uma civilização asteca incluindo todos os padrões culturais particulares comuns para os povos falantes do náhuatl do pós-período tardio na Mesoamérica. A partir do século XII o vale do México foi o núcleo da civilização asteca: aqui a capital da Aztec Triple Alliance, a cidade de Tenochtitlan, foi construída sobre islotes no Lago Texcoco. A Aliança Tripla formou seu império tributário expandindo sua hegemonia política muito além do Vale do México, conquistando outros estados da cidade em toda a Mesoamérica. No seu auge, a cultura asteca tinha ricas e complexas tradições mitológicas e religiosas, bem como alcançando notáveis realizações arquitetônicas e artísticas. Um elemento particularmente marcante da cultura asteca para muitos foi a prática do sacrifício humano. Em 1521, Hernán Cortés, juntamente com um grande número de aliados indígenas de língua náhuatl, conquistou Tenochtitlán e derrotou a Aliança Tripla asteca sob a liderança de Hueyi Tlatoani Moctezuma II Na série de eventos muitas vezes referida como A Queda do Império Asteca. Posteriormente, os espanhóis fundaram o novo assentamento da Cidade do México no local da ruína da capital asteca. A capital do império asteca foi Tenochtitlan, agora o local da moderna Cidade do México. Construído em uma série de ilhotas no Lago Texcoco, o plano da cidade foi baseado em um layout simétrico que foi dividido em quatro seções da cidade chamados campans. A cidade era entrelaçada com canais que eram úteis para o transporte. Tenochtitlan foi construído de acordo com um plano fixo e centrado no recinto ritual, onde a Grande Pirâmide de Tenochtitlan subiu 50 m acima da cidade. As casas foram feitas de madeira e marga, os telhados foram feitos de cana, embora as pirâmides, os templos e os palácios fossem feitos geralmente da pedra. Ao redor da ilha, chinampa camas foram utilizadas para crescer alimentos, bem como, ao longo do tempo, para aumentar o tamanho da ilha. Os chinampas, mal chamados de jardins flutuantes, eram longos leitos de plantas plantados no fundo do lago raso. Eles eram um sistema agrícola muito eficiente e podiam fornecer até sete safras por ano. Com base nos rendimentos atuais do chinampa, estima-se que 1 hectare de chinampa alimente 20 indivíduos e que 9.000 hectares de chinampas possam alimentar 180.000. O antropólogo Eduardo Noguera estima a população de 200 mil habitantes com base na contagem de casas e fundindo a população de Tlatelolco (uma vez uma cidade independente, mas depois se tornou um subúrbio de Tenochtitlan). Se se incluem as ilhotas circundantes e as margens ao redor do Lago Texcoco, as estimativas variam de 300.000 a 700.000 habitantes. A civilização asteca continha cerca de 15 milhões de pessoas que moravam em quase 500 cidades. Cerca de 300.000 pessoas moravam em Tenochtitlan. Nesta cidade famosa, o governo controlou e era responsável para tratar dos impostos, da punição, da fome, e da troca do mercado. A punição na cidade de Tenochtitlan foi imposta por quebrar qualquer código do governo. Os ofensores foram escravizados em condições de trabalho tediosas por um período de tempo específico. Se a infração aconteceu a ser menor, o quebra-lei foi acusado de uma série de taxas ou multas. Este tipo de sistema de governo é apenas uma das muitas coisas que afetaram aspectos da vida cotidiana para os astecas. A cidade de Tenochtitlan foi realmente magnífico. Sua taxa de criminalidade era extremamente baixa, e era quase impossível encontrar o desperdício na cidade. Os habitantes da cidade eram inteligentes e leais à cidade. As estruturas foram incrível, incluindo o Templo Principal, a Grande Pirâmide, e muitos palácios famosos. Os astecas trabalhavam em torno de coisas que eram difíceis de conseguir, como a comida. Em vez disso, mantiveram outros empregos e negociaram com países estrangeiros. Tudo sobre Tenochtitlan foi maravilhoso, ea cidade se destaca como um dos maiores império de todos os tempos. Tenochtitlan foi fundada de forma fascinante. Supostamente, o mito por trás da fundação de Tenochtitlan: Huitzilopochtli (o Deus dos astecas) disse a um dos líderes em um sonho, Quando você seguiu minhas ordens e matou meu sobrinho Capil e arrancou seu coração, e jogou-o para o lago , O coração caiu sobre uma pedra, e desta pedra fora cresceu um napal cactus e sobre isso uma águia está agora empoleirado. Lá você estabelecerá uma cidade chamada Tenochtitlan. O líder ouviu Huitzilipochtli, e seguiu com suas ordens em Anno Domini 1325. A razão por trás nomear a cidade Tenochtitlan era que significava o lugar de rock e nopal. O coração de Capil desembarcou em uma rocha, onde um nopal cresceu nochtl significa nopal. Este líder, seu nome desconhecido, seguiu o comando de seus deuses, apesar de esta área ser uma das piores peças de lan no México. Tenochitlan foi construído onde a Cidade do México está agora, ea terra era pantanosa e infestada de cobras, a pequena quantidade que havia. No início, a posição de Tenochtitlans era em duas ilhas, mas ao longo de curtos períodos de tempo, estendeu-se ao lago circundando-o através de docas construídas anexadas às ilhas por pares, e construindo assentamentos sobre estas docas sobre o Lago Texcoco. Embora não era a melhor terra ao redor, este líder projetou a cidade à perfeição. Havia quatro enormes diques saindo do centro da cidade para docas separadas e pequenas ilhas. Estes quatro diques constituíram quatro quadrantes na cidade. Cada um dos quadrantes contém desenvolvimentos habitacionais, e o que eram conhecidos como jardins flutuantes. As casas foram pintadas de branco com telhados de adobe. A razão pela qual as casas foram pintadas de branco foi para que a luz refletiria sobre eles e manter os habitantes que vivem na casa fria. As casas também eram embaladas firmemente junto para fazer a única vez em que o sol irradiaria acima nelas o meio-dia. Os jardins flutuantes eram importantes para Tenochtitlan porque havia tão pouca terra para cultivar. Os habitantes de Tenochtitlan usaram irrigação para cultivar durante todo o ano e fizeram jardins flutuantes preenchendo áreas rasas do lago e ancorando o solo com árvores. Os jardins flutuantes foram um grande sucesso, e também adicionado à beleza da cidade. Tenochtitlan foi provavelmente uma das, se não a cidade mais bem desenhada do mundo, eo centro da cidade provou isso. O centro de Tenochtitlan era composto por muitos templos, sendo o mais importante o Templo Principal, palácios, pirâmides e uma grande praça. O centro era de aproximadamente 500 metros quadrados, mas parecia muito maior porque tudo estava tão bem unido. Havia perto de uma dúzia de templos no centro, mas o mais importante era o Templo Principal. O templo principal foi dedicado ao deus da chuva Tlaloc e ao deus do sol Huitzilopochtli, que os astecas consideraram seu protetor. O Templo Principal era um grande templo, que as palavras não podiam descrever. Estava livre de qualquer tipo de lixo e tinha uma parede incrivelmente alta em que outra cidade poderia ser construída. Era importante para os astecas de Tenochtitlan, e eles adoravam diariamente nele. Havia também muitos palácios e pirâmides. Os palácios eram dedicados aos reis e nobres, e as pirâmides eram feitas para sacrifícios. Os astecas de Tenochtitlan, embora fosse necessário nutrir as divindades com os corações humanos, porque se não, então o sol não iria subir diariamente, ou haveria uma enorme seca. As pessoas usavam principalmente prisioneiros de guerra para seus sacrifícios. O principal lugar de sacrifício foi a Grande Pirâmide. Ele tinha cento e catorze passos, e acrescentou à beleza magnífica da cidade. O Plaza estava no centro morto da cidade, e estava caiado. Não tinha nenhuma ninhada, e grandes paredes ao redor. O Plaza e todas essas estruturas fazem o centro parecer uma coisa de beleza. Os habitantes de Tenochtitlan foram o que provavelmente fez Tenochtitlan o grande império que se recorda como hoje. Tenochtitlan foi espalhado para fora sobre 26.400 pés, e prendeu sobre 400.000 habitantes. Essa é a maior densidade populacional já registrada na história da Mesoamérica. Todos os habitantes de Tenochtitlan eram astecas, e tinham a mesma cultura e religião. Todos eram politeístas, acreditando em muitos deuses. O mais importante para eles era Huitzilopochtli, o deus do sol. Os astecas o adoravam diariamente no Templo Principal. Como a terra não era um ótimo lugar para cultivar, os astecas foram forçados a contornar esse fato, o que fizeram muito bem. A maioria dos cidadãos que viviam em Tenochtitlan ocupava empregos que não estavam associados com alimentos. Os moradores da metrópole fizeram artesanato, pregavam sua religião, negociavam com outras civilizações ou passavam a fazer parte do governo. Os espanhóis e outras nações foram surpreendidos com a qualidade pura da cidade e seus residentes, portanto, portanto, negociado muito com eles. Os astecas recebiam quase todo o seu alimento do comércio exterior. Os astecas eram uma raça magnífica de pessoas que preservaram Tenochtitlan por mais de duzentos anos. Muitas coisas foram responsáveis pela queda de Tenochtitlan. As três principais causas foram repetidos ataques de Cortes, uma grande fome que resultou de um declínio no comércio exterior, e muitas doenças transportadas pelos Euoropeans. Tenochtitlan estava bem protegido pelo Lago Texcoco, mas Cortés e seu exército eram muito fortes. A cidade caiu em 1540 dC, e Cortês destruiu a cidade. Ele construiu sobre o que é hoje conhecida como Cidade do México. Embora a cidade em si foi destruída, as memórias e pura beleza da cidade permanecerá para sempre. O império atingiu seu auge durante o reinado de Ahuitzotls em 1486-1502. Seu sucessor, Motehcuzoma Xocoyotzin (mais conhecido como Moctezuma II ou Montezuma), tinha sido Hueyi Tlatoani durante 17 anos, quando os espanhóis, liderados por Hernan Cortes, desembarcaram na Costa do Golfo na primavera de 1519. Apesar de algumas primeiras batalhas entre os dois, Cortés aliou-se com os aztecas inimigo de longa data, a Confederação de Tlaxcala, e chegou às portas de Tenochtitlan em 8 de novembro de 1519. Os espanhóis e seus aliados Tlaxcallan tornaram-se cada vez mais perigosos e indesejados convidados na capital. Em junho de 1520, as hostilidades explodiram, culminando no massacre no Templo Principal e na morte de Moctezuma II. Os espanhóis fugiram da cidade em 1 de julho, um episódio mais tarde caracterizado como La Noche Triste (a noite triste). Eles e seus aliados nativos retornaram na primavera de 1521 para sitiar Tenochtitlan, uma batalha que terminou em 13 de agosto com a destruição da cidade. Durante este período, o império agora desmoronando passou por uma rápida linha de sucessão governante. Após a morte de Moctezuma II, o império caiu nas mãos de imperadores severamente enfraquecidos, como Cuitlahuac, antes de eventualmente ser governado por governantes fantoche, como Andres de Tapia Motelchiuh, instalado pelos espanhóis. Apesar do declínio do império asteca, a maioria das culturas mesoamericanas estavam intactas após a queda de Tenochtitlan. De fato, a liberdade da dominação asteca pode ter sido considerada um desenvolvimento positivo pela maioria das outras culturas. As classes superiores do império asteca foram consideradas nobres pelos espanhóis e geralmente tratadas como tal inicialmente. Tudo isso mudou rapidamente e a população nativa logo foi proibida de estudar por lei, e teve o status de menores. Os tlaxcaltecas permaneceram leais aos seus amigos espanhóis e foram autorizados a entrar em outras conquistas com Cortês e seus homens. Agricultura Os aztecas da pré-conquista eram um império que prosperou agriculturalmente, e fizeram-no sem a roda ou as bestas domésticas do burden. Eles tinham quatro métodos principais de agricultura que foram bastante bem sucedidos. A forma mais antiga e básica de agricultura implementada pelos astecas é conhecida como cultivo de chuvas. The Aztecs also implemented terrace agriculture in hilly areas, or areas that could not be used for normal farming. Terracing allowed for an increased soil depth and impeded soil erosion. The terraces were built by piling up a wall of stones parallel to the contour of the hillside. Dirt was then filled in, creating viable, flat farmland. There were three types of terrace agriculture, each one used for specific circumstances. The three types were hillslope contour terraces (steeper slopes), semi-terraces (gentle slopes, walls were made with Maguey plants rather than stones), and cross-channel terraces. Terracing was used mostly in the highlands of the Aztec empire. In the valleys of the empire, irrigation farming was used. Dams diverted water from natural springs to the fields. This allowed for harvests to be successful on a regular basis. The prosperity of a field was not dependent upon the rain. Irrigation systems had been in place long before the Aztecs. However, they built canal systems that were longer and much more elaborate than any previous irrigation systems. They even managed to divert a large portion of the Cuauhtitlan River to provide irrigation to large areas of fields. The network of canals was a very complex and intricate system. In the swampy regions along Lake Xochimilco, the Aztecs implemented yet another method of crop cultivation. They built what are called chinampas. Chinampas are areas of raised land, created from alternating layers of mud from the bottom of the lake, and plant matterother vegetation. These raised beds were between 2 and 4 meters wide, and 20 to 40 meters long. They rose about 1 meter above the surface of the water, and were separated by narrow canals, which allowed farmers to move between them by canoe. The chinampas were extremely fertile pieces of land, and yielded, on average, seven crops annually. In order to plant on them, farmers first created seedbeds, or reed rafts, where they planted seeds and allowed them to germinate. Once they had, they were re-planted in the chinampas. This cut the growing time down considerably. The Aztecs are credited with domestication of the subspecies of Wild turkey, Meleagris gallopavo, which is native to this region. Song and poetry were highly regarded there were presentations and poetry contests at most of the Aztec festivals. There were also dramatic presentations that included players, musicians and acrobats. Poetry was the only occupation worthy of an Aztec warrior in times of peace. A remarkable amount of this poetry survives, having been collected during the era of the conquest. In some cases poetry is attributed to individual authors, such as Nezahualcoyotl, tlatoani of Texcoco, and Cuacuauhtzin, Lord of Tepechpan, but whether these attributions reflect actual authorship is a matter of opinion. Miguel Leon-Portilla, a well-respected Aztec scholar of Mexico, has stated that it is in this poetry where we can find the real thought of the Aztecs, independent of official Aztec ideology. It is also important to note that the Spanish classified many aspects of the AztecNahuatl culture according to the lexicon and organizational categories with which they would distinguish in Europe. In the same way that the second letter of Cortez made a mention of mesquitas, or in English, mosques, when trying to convey his impression of Aztec architecture, early colonists and missionaries divided the principal bodies of nahuatl literature as poetry and prose. Poetry was in xochitl in cuicatl a dual term meaning the flower and the song and was divided into different genres. Yaocuicatl was devoted to war and the god(s) of war, Teocuicatl to the gods and creation myths and to adoration of said figures, xochicuicatl to flowers (a symbol of poetry itself and indicative of the highly metaphorical nature of a poetry that often utilized duality to convey multiple layers of meaning). Prose was tlahtolli, also with its different categories and divisions (Garganigo et al). The most important collection of these poems is Romances de los senores de la Nueva Espana, collected (Tezcoco 1582), probably by Juan Bautista de Pomar. Bautista de Pomar was the great-grandson of Netzahualcoyotl. He spoke Nahuatl, but was raised a Christian and wrote in Latin characters. (See also: Is It You, a short poem attributed to Netzahualcoyotl, and Lament on the Fall of Tenochtitlan, a short poem contained within the Anales de Tlatelolco manuscript.) The Aztec people also enjoyed a type of dramatic presentation, a kind of theatre. Some plays were comical with music and acrobats, others were staged dramas of their gods. After the conquest, the first Christian churches had open chapels reserved for these kinds of representations. Plays in Nahuatl, written by converted Indians, were an important instrument for the conversion to Christianity, and are still found today in the form of traditional pastorelas, which are played during Christmas to show the Adoration of Baby Jesus, and other Biblical passages. Music and dance formed an essential part of the indigenous rites and ceremonies. Research about music of the Aztec people dates back to the writings of Bernal del Castillo, who was appalled by the music of these people because he viewed it during their ritualistic sacrifices, which were very different from rituals of Christian worship. Others, such as the Franciscan monk Fray Bernardino de Sahagun and the Dominican monk Diego Duran, were able to look at the music from different viewpoints, noting the unique instruments and the qualities of pitch and harmony that were achieved with these instruments - new sounds to their ears. Some musical instruments used are Tetzilacatl, Teponaztli, Tecomapiloa, Omichicahuaztli, Huehuetl, Coyolli, Chililitli, Caililiztli, Chicahuaztli, Cacalachtli, Ayotl, Ayacahtli, Tetzilacatl. The Aztec sculptures which adorned their temples and other buildings were among the most elaborate in all of the Americas. Their purpose was to please the gods and they attempted to do that in everything they did. Many of the sculptures reflected their perception of their gods and how they interacted in their lives. The most famous surviving Aztec sculpture is the large circular Calendar Stone. which represents the Aztec universe. Class Structure In Aztec society, warriors, priests, and the nobility were considered to be among the most respected in the Aztecan social hierarchy Because of the Aztecs emphasis on warfare, the warrior class was highly valued, and often warriors would volunteer for the most important Aztec sacrificial rituals. The long distance traders also enjoyed considerable privileges and often served the government as ambassadors and spies. The most outstanding artisans, physicians and truly wise teachers were also highly respected. The Aztec society was divided into 3 classes: slaves, commoners, and nobility. The highest class were the pipiltin or nobility. Originally this status was not hereditary, although the sons of pillis had access to better resources and education, so it was easier for them to become pillis. Later the class system took on hereditary aspects. The nobilities were the people who were nobles by birth, priests, and those who earned their rank. The very highest social sphere was occupied by a minority of families known as the pipiltin . These people were members of the hereditary nobility and occupied the top positions in the government, the army and the priesthood. The nobles chose a supreme leader known as the tlatoani from within their own group in Nahuatl this name means he that speaks . This leader was greatly revered and ruled until his death. The second class were the macehualtin, originally peasants. Eduardo Noguera estimates that in later stages only 20 of the population was dedicated to agriculture and food production. The other 80 of society were warriors, artisans and traders. Eventually, most of the macehuallis were dedicated to arts and crafts. Their works were an important source of income for the city. The most numerous social group was known as the macehualtin these people were engaged in agriculture and the common trades. Although they worked the land in family units and were allowed to kept their produce, the land itself was collectively owned by the inhabitants of the neighborhood or calpulli. Commoners were given lifetime ownership of an area of land. The lowest group of commoners were not allowed to own property. They were tenant farmers, they just got to use the land and never be owners. The lower social orders were made up by peasants, who like the European serfs, were attached to the lands owned by the nobility and were obliged to cultivate them in exchange for part of the harvest. Slaves or tlacotin also constituted an important class. Aztecs could become slaves because of debts, as a criminal punishment or as war captives. A slave could have possessions and even own other slaves. However, upon becoming a slave, all of the slaves animals and excess money would go to his purchaser. Slaves could buy their liberty, and slaves could be set free if they had children with or were married to their masters. Typically, upon the death of the master, slaves who had performed outstanding services were freed. The rest of the slaves were passed on as part of an inheritance. Traveling merchants called pochtecah were a small, but important class as they not only facilitated commerce, but also communicated vital information across the empire and beyond its borders. They were often employed as spies. This slavery was very different from what Europeans of the same period were to establish in their colonies, although it had much in common with the slaves of classical antiquity. (Sahagun doubts the appropriateness even of the term slavery for this Aztec institution.) First, slavery was personal, not hereditary: a slaves children were free. A slave could have possessions and even own other slaves. Slaves could buy their liberty, and slaves could be set free if they were able to show they had been mistreated or if they had children with or were married to their masters. Typically, upon the death of the master, slaves who had performed outstanding services were freed. The rest of the slaves were passed on as part of an inheritance. Another rather remarkable method for a slave to recover liberty was described by Manuel Orozco y Berra in La civilizacion azteca (1860): if, at the tianquiztli (marketplace the word has survived into modern-day Spanish as tianguis), a slave could escape the vigilance of their master, run outside the walls of the market and step on a piece of human excrement, and then present their case to the judges, who would grant freedom. They would then be washed, provided with new clothes not owned by the master, and declared free. Because a person who was not a relative of the master could be declared a slave for trying to prevent a slaves escape, people typically would not help the master prevent the slaves escape. Orozco y Berra also reports that a master could not sell a slave without the slaves consent, unless the slave had been classified as incorrigible by an authority. (Incorrigibility could be determined on the basis of repeated laziness, attempts to run away, or general bad conduct.) Incorrigible slaves were made to wear a wooden collar, affixed by rings at the back. The collar was not merely a symbol of bad conduct: it was designed to make it harder to run away through a crowd or through narrow spaces. When buying a collared slave, one was informed of how many times that slave had been sold. A slave who was sold four times as incorrigible could be sold to be sacrificed those slaves commanded a premium in price. However, if a collared slave managed to present him - or herself in the royal palace or in a temple, he or she would regain liberty. An Aztec could become a slave as a punishment. A murderer sentenced to death could instead, upon the request of the wife of his victim, be given to her as a slave. A father could sell his son into slavery if the son was declared incorrigible by an authority. Those who did not pay their debts could also be sold as slaves. People could sell themselves as slaves. They could stay free long enough to enjoy the price of their liberty, about twenty blankets, usually enough for a year after that time they went to their new master. Usually this was the destiny of gamblers and of old ahuini (courtesans or prostitutes). Motolinia reports that some captives, future victims of sacrifice, were treated as slaves with all the rights of an Aztec slave until the time of their sacrifice, but it is not clear how they were kept from running away. The children of poor parents could be sold, usually for only a certain time period. Slaves could buy back their freedom. Slaves that escaped and reached the royal palace without being caught were given their freedom instantly. Aztec codices are books written by pre-Columbian and colonial-era Aztecs. These codices provide some of the best primary sources for Aztec culture. The pre-Columbian codices differ from European codices in that they are largely pictorial they were not meant to symbolize spoken or written narratives. The colonial era codices not only contain Aztec pictograms, but also Classical Nahuatl (in the Latin alphabet), Spanish, and occasionally Latin. Although there are very few surviving pre-conquest codices, the tlacuilo (codex painter) tradition endured the transition to colonial culture scholars now have access to a body of around 500 colonial-era codices. According to the Madrid Codex, the fourth tlatoani Itzcoatl (ruling from 1427 (or 1428) to 1440) ordered the burning of all historical codices because it was not wise that all the people should know the paintings. Among other purposes, this allowed the Aztec state to develop a state-sanctioned history and mythos that venerated Huitzilopochtli. The principal food of the Aztec was a thin cornmeal pancake called a tlaxcalli. (In Spanish, it is called a tortilla.) They used the tlaxcallis to scoop up foods while they ate or they wrapped the foods in the tlaxcalli to form tacos. They hunted for most of the meat in their diet and the chief game animals were deer, rabbits, ducks and geese. The only animals they raised for meat were turkeys and dogs. The Aztecs have been credited with the discovery of chocolate. The Aztecs made chocolate from the fruit of the cacao tree and used it as a flavoring and as an ingredient in various beverages and kinds of confectionery. In 1519, Hernan Cortez tasted Cacahuatt, a drink enjoyed by Montezuma II, the last Aztec emperor. Cortez observed that the Aztecs treated cacao beans, used to make the drink, as priceless treasures. He subsequently brought the beans back to Spain where the chocolate drink was made and then heated with added sweeteners. Its formula was kept a secret to be only enjoyed by the nobility and the warrior class. The Aztec economy can be divided into a political sector, under the control of nobles and kings, and a commercial sector that operated independently of the political sector. The political sector of the economy centered on the control of land and labor by kings and nobles. Nobles owned all land, and commoners got access to farmland and other fields through a variety of arrangements, from rental through sharecropping to serf-like labor and slavery. These payments from commoners to nobles supported both the lavish lifestyles of the high nobility and the finances of city-states. Many luxury goods were produced for consumption by nobles. The producers of featherwork, sculptures, jewelry, and other luxury items were full-time commoner specialists who worked for noble patrons. In the commercial sector of the economy several types of money were in regular use. Small purchases were made with cacao beans, which had to be imported from lowland areas. In Aztec marketplaces, a small rabbit was worth 30 beans, a turkey egg cost 3 beans, and a tamal cost a single bean. For larger purchases, standardized lengths of cotton cloth called quachtli were used. There were different grades of quachtli, ranging in value from 65 to 300 cacao beans. One source stated that 20 quachtli could support a commoner for one year in Tenochtitlan. A man could also sell his own daughter as a sexual slave or future religious sacrifice, generally for around 500 to 700 beans. A small gold statue (approximately 0.62 kg 1.37 lb) cost 250 beans. Money was used primarily in the many periodic markets that were held in each town. A typical town would have a weekly market (every 5 days), while larger cities held markets every day. Cortes reported that the central market of Tlatelolco, Tenochtitlans sister city, was visited by 60,000 people daily. Some sellers in the markets were petty vendors farmers might sell some of their produce, potters sold their vessels, and so on. Other vendors were professional merchants who traveled from market to market seeking profits. The pochteca were specialized merchants organized into exclusive guilds. They made lengthy expeditions to all parts of Mesoamerica, and they served as the judges and supervisors of the Tlatelolco market. Although the economy of Aztec Mexico was commercialized (in its use of money, markets, and merchants), it was not a capitalist economy because land and labor were not commodities for sale. The Mexicas were especially interested in education. Boys and girls were carefully educated from birth. During the first years of life, fathers educated boys, while mothers took care of girls. Once family education was over, the children of the nobles and priests went to the calmecac, and all others went to the tepochcalli. The Aztecs believed that education was extremely valuable and insisted that boys, girls and young people attend school. There were two main types of school, the so-called tepochcalli and the calm-cac. Boys and girls went to both, but were kept separate from each other. The tepochcalli was for the children of common families and there was one in each neighborhood. Here, children learned history, myths, religion and Aztec ceremonial songs. Boys received intensive military training and also learned about agriculture and the trades. Girls were educated to form a family, and were trained in the arts and trades that would ensure the welfare of their future homes. The calmecac was for the children of the nobility, and served to form new military and religious leaders. Teachers were greatly admired. Until the age of fourteen, the education of children was in the hands of their parents, but supervised by the authorities of their calpolli. Part of this education involved learning a collection of sayings, called huehuetlatolli (sayings of the old), that embodied the Aztecs ideals. Judged by their language, most of the huehuetlatolli seemed to have evolved over several centuries, predating the Aztecs and most likely adopted from other Nahua cultures. At 15, all boys and girls went to school. The Mexica, one of the Aztec groups, were one of the first people in the world to have mandatory education for nearly all children, regardless of gender, rank, or station. There were two types of schools: the telpochcalli, for practical and military studies, and the calmecac, for advanced learning in writing, astronomy, statesmanship, theology, and other areas. The two institutions seem to be common to the Nahua people, leading some experts to suggest that they are older than the Aztec culture. Aztec teachers (tlatimine) propounded a spartan regime of education with the purpose of forming a stoical people. Girls were educated in the crafts of home and child raising. They were not taught to read or write. All women were taught to be involved in religion there are paintings of women presiding over religious ceremonies, but there are no references to female priests. Family Life In the context of the family, men and women played distinct roles. Aztec women married at about 16. In school boys were taught arts and crafts, and the girls were taught to cook and other necessities to raise a family. Farming - Irrigation The Aztecs made terraces, which were steps descending down a hall to control the flow of water. This kept their crops from flooding. Like the Olmec civilization, the Aztecs also used a slash and burn method of farming. Chinampas, artificial islands made by weaving giant reed mats and covering them with mudded plants, were used to extend crops into the swamp. Although they seemed to float, the chinampas were anchored to the ground by plant roots. All this helped the Aztecs grow and abundance of corn, chili peppers, squash, tomatoes, beans, and other kinds of food. The Aztecs were late arrivals to the Lake Texcoco area. They were surrounded by very strong neighbors, so they were forced to live on the swampy, western side of the lake. As the Aztecs grew in number they made excellent military and civil organizations. By 1325, they founded the city of Tenochtitlan. The city was located on present day Mexico City. It was very hard to build Tenochtitlan because the Aztecs only had a small piece of land in the surrounding marshes. The Aztecs made the swampy, shallow lake into chinampas. In this case the islands were made by piling up mud from the lake bottom. They used them as their city foundations. Then they built causeways and bridges to connect the city to the mainland. To easily move people and goods, canals were dug and lined with stone. All this made it easy to defend the city from attack. Because of Tenochtitlans location and high organization, the city grew rapidly. By 1519 there were about 60,000 people in the city every day. Goods were exported and traded in many other parts of the Aztec Empire. Games and Sports A game similar to handball was played by the northern and central Americans from 1500 B. C. most famously by the Aztecs as the Mesoamerican ballgame. None of these reference a rebound game using a wall, however, and these ancient games resemble a form of hand tennis. They were very competitive and didnt like to lose. Government The Aztec Empire was an example of an empire that ruled by indirect means. Like most European empires, it was ethnically very diverse, but unlike most European empires, it was more a system of tribute than a single system of government. In the theoretical framework of imperial systems posited by Alexander J. Motyl the Aztec empire was an informal or hegemonic empire because it did not exert supreme authority over the conquered lands, it merely expected tributes to be paid. It was also a discontinuous empire because not all dominated territories were connected, for example the southern peripheral zones of Xoconochco were not in direct contact with the center. The hegemonic nature of the Aztec empire can be seen in the fact that generally local rulers were restored to their positions once their city-state was conquered and the Aztecs did not interfere in local affairs as long as the tribute payments were made. Although the Aztec form of government is often referred to as an empire, in fact most areas within the empire were organized as city-states, known as altepetl in Nahuatl. These were small polities ruled by a king (tlatoani) from a legitimate dynasty. The Early Aztec period was a time of growth and competition among altepetl. Even after the empire was formed (1428) and began its program of expansion through conquest, the altepetl remained the dominant form of organization at the local level. The efficient role of the altepetl as a regional political unit was largely responsible for the success of the empires hegemonic form of control. Human Sacrifice Human sacrifice as shown in the Codex Magliabechiano For most people today, and for the European Catholics who first met the Aztecs, human sacrifice was the most striking feature of Aztec civilization. While human sacrifice was practiced throughout Mesoamerica, the Aztecs, if their own accounts are to be believed, brought this practice to an unprecedented level. For example, for the reconsecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, the Aztecs reported that they sacrificed 84,400 prisoners over the course of four days, reportedly by Ahuitzotl, the Great Speaker himself. However, most experts consider these numbers to be overstated. For example, the sheer logistics associated with sacrificing 84,000 victims would be overwhelming, 2,000 being a more likely figure. A similar consensus has developed on reports of cannibalism among the Aztecs. In the writings of Bernardino de Sahagun, Aztec anonymous informants defended the practice of human sacrifice by asserting that it was not very different from the European way of waging warfare: Europeans killed the warriors in battle, Aztecs killed the warriors after the battle. Accounts by the Tlaxcaltecas, the primary enemy of the Aztecs at the time of the Spanish Conquest, show that at least some of them considered it an honor to be sacrificed. In one legend, the warrior Tlahuicole was freed by the Aztecs but eventually returned of his own volition to die in ritual sacrifice. Tlaxcala also practiced the human sacrifice of captured Aztec warriors. The Aztec spoke a language called Nahuatl (pronounced NAH waht l). It belongs to a large group of Indian languages which also include the languages spoken by the Comanche, Pima, Shoshone and other tribes of western North America. Nahuatl is a group of related languages and dialects of the Nahuan (traditionally called Aztecan) branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family. Collectively they are spoken by an estimated 1.5 million Nahua people, most of whom live in Central Mexico. All Nahuan languages are indigenous to Mesoamerica. This early literary language based on the Tenochtitlan dialect has been labeled Classical Nahuatl and is among the most studied and best documented languages of the Americas. Today Nahuatl dialects are spoken in scattered communities mostly in rural areas. Variations of this language are still spoken in some of the more remote areas of Mexico in which the indigenous cultures are still alive. Nahuatl is a variation of a larger language group known as Uto-Aztecan. Other variations on this language group are still spoken in some of the regions spanning from central Mexico through northern Mexico on into the southwestern United States including the Pima, Tohono Oohdam of Arizona. Mathematics The Aztecs used a vigesimal system, counting by 20s. The numbers 1-19 were expressed by dots or occasionally by fingers 20 was represented by a flag 400 (i. e. 20 (20) by a sign which looks like a feather or a fir tree and 8,000 (20 x 20 x 20) by a bag or tasseled pouch which was imagined to contain 8,000 cocoa beans. Aztec religion combined elements of polytheism, shamanism and animism within a framework of astronomy and calendrics. Like other Mesoamerican religions, it had elements of human sacrifice in connection with a large number of religious festivals which were held according to patterns of the Aztec calendar. It had a large and ever increasing pantheon the Aztecs would often adopt into their own religious practice deities of other geographic regions or peoples. Aztec cosmology divided the world into upper and nether-worlds, each associated with a specific set of deities and astronomical objects. Important in Aztec religion were the sun, moon and the planet Venus - all of which held different symbolic and religious meanings and we re connected to deities and geographical places. Large parts of the Aztec pantheon were inherited from previous Mesoamerican civilizations and others, such as Tlaloc, Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca, were venerated by different names in most cultures throughout the history of Mesoamerica. For the Aztecs especially important deities were Tlaloc the god of rain, Huitzilopochtli the patron god of the Mexico tribe, Quetzalcoatl the culture hero and god of civilization and order, and Tezcatlipoca the god of destiny and fortune, connected with war and sorcery. Each of these gods had their own temples within the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan - Tlaloc and Huitzilopochtli were both worshipped at the Templo Mayor. A common Aztec religious practice was the recreation of the divine: Mythological events would be ritually recreated and living persons would impersonate specific deities and be revered as a god - and often ritually sacrificed. Gods and Goddesses Philosophy Aztec philosophy saw the concept of teotl as a fundamental unity that underlies the entire universe. Teotl forms, shapes, and is all things. Even things in oppositio - light and dark, life and death - were seen as expressions of the same unity, teotl. The belief in a unity with dualistic expressions compares with similar dialectical monist ideas in both Western and Eastern philosophies. Aztec priests had a panentheistic view of religion but the popular Aztec religion maintained polytheism. Priests saw the different gods as aspects of the singular and transcendent unity of teotl but the masses were allowed to practice polytheism without understanding the true, unified nature of the Aztec gods. Aztec philosophers focused on morality as establishing balance. The world was seen as constantly shifting with the ever-changing teotl. Morality focused on finding the path to living a balanced life, which would provide stability in the shifting world. Aztec philosophy saw the arts as a way to express the true nature of teotl. Art was considered to be good if it in some way brought about a better understanding of teotl. Aztec poetry was closely tied to philosophy and often used to express philosophic concepts. Precolumbian Aztec society was the highly complex and stratified society that developed among the Aztecs of central Mexico in the centuries prior to the Spanish conquest of Mexico, and which were built on the cultural foundations of the larger region of Mesoamerica. Politically the society was based around the independent citystate, called an Altepetl, composed of smaller divisions called Calpulli, which were again normally composed of one or more extended kinship groups. Socially the society depended on a rather strict division between nobles and free commoners both groups which were divided into elaborate hierarchies of social status, responsibilities and power. Economically the society was dependent on agriculture and also to a large extent warfare, other economically important factors was commerce, long distance and local, and a high degree of trade specialization. Recreation was important. Trade and Commerce Prior to the fall of the Aztec, the Aztec people had a stable economy driven by a successful trade market. The markets, which were located in the center of many communities, were well organized and diverse in goods, as noted by the Spanish conquistadors upon their arrival. The regional merchants, known as tlanecuilo tended to barter utilitarian items and foodstuffs, which included gold, silver, and other precious stones, cloth and cotton, animal skins, both agriculture and wild game, and woodwork. The trade market of the Aztec people was not only important to commerce, but also to the socialization, as the markets provided a place for the people to exchange information within their regions. This type of trade market was used primarily for locally produced goods, as there was not much traveling needed to exchange goods at the market. With no domestic animals as an effective way to transport goods, the local markets were an essential part of Aztec commerce. However, the Aztec nobility obtained much of their merchandise from neighboring highland basins, distant places within the empire, and from land beyond the empire therefore creating the need for a long distance trade organization. The long distance trade was carried out by merchants called pochteca, who were defined by their positions within the system. These professional merchants occupied a high status in Aztec society, below the noble class. The pochteca were responsible for providing the materials that the noble class used to display their wealth. These materials were often obtained from foreign sources. Due to the success of the pochteca, many of the merchants became as wealthy as the noble class, but were obligated to hide this wealth from the public. The pochteca were an advanced group who reported to 12 locations throughout the Empire, where the high officials were located. The highest officials of the pochteca were the pochtecatlatoque. The pochtecatlatoque were the elder of the pochteca, and were no longer travelers, but rather acted as administrators, overseeing young pochteca and administering the marketplace. The second group of pochteca was the slave traders, known as the tlatlani. These people were often referred to as the richest of merchants, as they played a central role in capturing the slaves used for sacrificial victims. The third group of long distance traders was the tencunenenque, who worked for the rulers by carrying out personal trade. A group of trader spies, known as the naualoztomeca, made up the last group of pochteca. The naualoztomeca were forced to disguise themselves as they traveled, as they sought after rare goods. The naualoztomeca were also used for gathering information at the markets and reporting the information to the higher levels of pochteca. All trade throughout the Aztec Empire was regulated by officers who patrolled the markets to ensure that the buyers were not being cheated by the merchants. Because markets were so numerous, in large cities reaching upwards of 20,000 people, the organization was crucial, and the Aztecs were able to create a successful market due to the success of enforcing the laws of the empire. Several pages from the Codex Mendoza list tributary towns along with the goods they supplied, which included not only luxuries such as feathers, adorned suits, and greenstone beads, but more practical goods such as cloth, firewood, and food. Tribute was usually paid twice or four times a year at differing times. Archaeological excavations in the Aztec-ruled provinces show that incorporation into the empire had both costs and benefits for provincial peoples. On the positive side, the empire promoted commerce and trade, and exotic goods from obsidian to bronze managed to reach the houses of both commoners and nobles. Trade partners included the enemy Tarascan, a source of bronze tools and jewelry. On the negative side, imperial tribute imposed a burden on commoner households, who had to increase their work to pay their share of tribute. Nobles, on the other hand, often made out well under imperial rule because of the indirect nature of imperial organization. The empire had to rely on local kings and nobles and offered them privileges for their help in maintaining order and keeping the tribute flowing. The Aztecs had 3 basic crafts: metal work, feather work, and music. The metal workers had no iron so they used copper, gold, and silver. Transportation The main contribution of the Aztec rule was a system of communications between the conquered cities. In Mesoamerica, without draft animals for transport (nor, as a result, wheeled vehicles), the roads were designed for travel on foot. Usually these roads were maintained through tribute, and travelers had places to rest and eat and even latrines to use at regular intervals, roughly every 10 or 15 km. Couriers (paynani) were constantly traveling along those ways, keeping the Aztecs informed of events, and helping to monitor the integrity of the roads. Due to the steady surveillance, even women could travel alone, a fact that amazed the Spaniards, as that was not at all possible in Europe since the time of the Romans. After the conquest those roads were no longer subject to maintenance and were lost. Due to the aspirations of conquest and the religious beliefs of the Mexicas, war was a very important activity. The Mexicas believed that the gods had sacrificed themselves for mankind, that their blood had given man life, and that the Sun was nourished with the blood of human hearts. This belief led them to sacrifice many prisoners at their temples. Some people were able to resist the Aztecs the most powerful of these were the Tlaxaltecas and the Purepechas. The people were completely prepared for war and great emphasis was placed on the creation of codexes and on the interpretation of the calendars, since both activities were essential to religion and community life. The codexes consist of writing and drawings made by the Mesoamerican people on strips of deer skin, or on a kind of paper made from amate tree bark. Once finished, these strips were folded like a concertina. Although there were surely a large number of codexes, only a few were conserved. Many were destroyed by the Spanish Conquistadors, and others were lost through neglect or due to the fragile materials on which they were created. The Aztec used pictographs to communicate through writing. Some of the pictures symbolized ideas and other represented the sounds of the syllables. They made paper by taking strips of bark from fig trees and pounding it on hard pieces of wood. The administration of Tenochtitlan and its foreign provinces required a great deal of paperwork. Taxes had to be collected, lawsuits between villages or private individuals had all to be recorded, and the merchants kept accounts of their goods and profits. Instructions and reports passed to and fro between the capital and the outlying cities, and like any civilized people of today the Mexicans were familiar with both red tape and official correspondence. The clans maintained land registers, and when Cortes reached Tenochtitlan he had no trouble in procuring from the royal archive a map showing all the rivers and bays along a 400-mile stretch of the north coast. In addition each temple owned a library of religious and astrological works, while a large private household, like that of Moctezuma, employed a full-time steward to look after the accounts which were so many that they filled an entire house. Ixtiuxochiti, a brother of the last native ruler of Texcoco, has left this account in the prologue to his Historia Chichimeca. They had scribes for each branch of knowledge. Some dealt with the annals, putting down in order the things. which happened each year, giving the day, month, and hour. Others had charge of the genealogies, recording the lineage of rulers, lords and noblemen, registering the newborn and deleting those who had died. Some painted the frontiers, limits, and boundary markers of the cities, provinces and villages, and also the distribution of fields, whose they were and to whom they belonged. Other scribes kept the law books and those dealing with the rites and ceremonies which they practiced when they were infidels. The priests recorded all matters to do with the temples and images, with their idolatrous doctrines, the festivals of their false gods, and their calendars. And finally, the philosophers and learned men which there were among them were charged with painting all the sciences which they had discovered, and with teaching by memory all the songs in which were embodied their scientific knowledge and historical traditions. In the law courts, especially those dealing with land and property rights, the disputants supported their claims with genealogies and maps, showing the kings land in purple, the lords in red, and the clan fields in yellow. Of this mass of paperwork hardly anything remains, and nearly all the surviving books from the Aztec homeland are of post-Conquest date. Some are copies of earlier works, while others are written in Aztec script with Spanish or Nahuati commentaries in European letters. The best collection of preConquest books comes from Oaxaca, the land of the Mixtecs, where more than a dozen examples have been preserved. Each book, or codex, consists of a strip, anything up to 13 yards in length and some 6-7 inches high, made of paper, maguey cloth, or deer skin, and folded in zigzag or concertina fashion like a modern map, so that wherever the user opened it he was confronted by two pages. The ends of the strip were glued to thin plaques of wood which served as covers and were some-times decorated with paintings or with discs of turquoise. Both sides of the strip were covered with writing and pictures, and the individual pages were divided into sections by red or black lines. Each page was normally read from top to bottom, though in some codices the arrangement is zigzag or even goes around the page. The strip was scanned from left to right. This enormous production of documents was dependent on a steady supply of the raw materials, and each year 24,000 reams of paper, the equivalent of 480,000 sheets, were sent to Tenochtitlan. Aztec paper was made from the inner bark of various species of fig tree. The bark was soaked in a river or in a bath of limey water, and the fibers were separated from the pulp, then laid on a smooth surface, doubled over, and beaten with a mashing stone which had a ridged surface. A binding material (probably a gum of vegetable origin), was added, and the fibers were beaten out into a thin, homogeneous sheet. After smoothing and drying, the processed bark fibers had recognizably become paper, but the surfaces were still porous and rough, unsuitable for painting until they had been given a coating of white chalky varnish or size. On this background the scribe drew his figures, first sketching the outlines in black, then adding the colors with his brush. The principal colors were red, blue, green, and yellow, and the pigments were sometimes mixed with an oil to give added luster. Scribes were respected craftsmen, and the profession was probably hereditary. The Aztecs wrote using symbols similar to the characters used by the Chinese and Japanese. All the symbols were pictures of one kind or another. The symbols can be thought of as ideograms in which the objects express their own natures but also the underlying ideas and not concepts associated with them. Thus the idea of death can be represented by a corpse wrapped for burial, night by a black sky and a closed eye, war by a shield and a club, or speech by a little scroll issuing from the mouth of the person who is talking. Concepts involving the idea of motion, walking, migration, or the sequence of events were usually indicated by a trail of footprints going in the necessary direction. Aztec personal names were of the descriptive type which could usually be written in glyphs. The name of the Emperor Acamapichtli means Handful of Reeds and his glyph is a forearm with the hand grasping a bundle of stalks. Chimalpopoca, the name of the next ruler but one, means Smoking Shield, and his successor was Itzcoatl or Obsidian Snake. There was also a phonetic element in Aztec writing. Every word in spoken language has a sound as well as a meaning, and glyphs were sometimes used to indicate the phonetic value of a word rather than its sense. Thus, to give an example from English, a drawing of an eye may be a pictogram (meaning the eye as part of the body), or an ideogram (expressing the idea of sight and vision), or a phonogram (standing for the sound I). In the latter case, the eye symbol can be used, as a sort of pun, to indicate the first person singular. It is possible to write the sentence, I can be hospitable, as a series of phonetic glyphs: an eye, a tin can, a bee, a horse, a pit or hole, and a table. The Aztecs applied the same technique to the writing of Nahuatl. Pictures were sometimes used for their sound, without reference to their meaning. The symbol for teeth (tiantli in the Aztec language) expressed the syllable tlan the glyph or tree or forest (quauill) stood for the syllable quauh, a stone (tell) for te, a mountain (tepeti) for tepe, and so on. Vowels were sometimes represented phonetically the sound a by the symbol for water (all), or 0 by a road (olli). Names of towns could be expressed by a combination of such phonograms. The sign for the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, was a stone (tell) from which sprouted a prickly pear cactus (nochili) Tochtepecan was indicated by a rabbit (tochtli) above a mountain (tepeti) quauhtitlan by a tree (quauitl) with teeth (tiantli), quauhnauac by a tree with a speech scroll issuing from it (nahuall - speech). These symbols were not placed in sequence, one after the other like the letters and words in a book, but formed part of a larger composition which often took the form of a scene in which many things may be happening at once. An Aztec manuscript is not read in the normal sense of the word, but is deciphered like a puzzle picture in which the glyphs provide. labels and clues to what is going on. The lower part of the picture generally represents the ground, while the upper is the sky. Since the Aztecs had not discovered the rules of perspective, distance is shown by placing the furthest figures at the top of the page and the nearest at the bottom. Relative importance is indicated by size: a victorious king, for example, may be drawn larger than his defeated enemy. All figures are in profile, with no three-quarter views or fore-shortening. Every item in a composition is there to give information, either directly or by implication, and the painter assumes that the person examining the document is familiar with the insignia of rank, the costumes appropriate to the various classes, and the iconography of the different gods. A priest, for instance, is always depicted with his face painted black, his hair long, and his ear-lobe stained red from blood-letting. He can thus be recognized as a priest even when dressed in warrior 5 costume or plain garb. In the same way, an old person can be recognized by the lines which represent the wrinkles on his face. Color was also important. The signs for grass, canes, and rushes look very much the same in black and white, but in color there could be no mistake: in the Codex Mendoza grass is yellow, canes are blue, rushes green. A ruler could be recognized at once from the shape of his diadem and from its color, turquoise, which was reserved for royal use. A scribe who could keep pace with court proceedings had every reason to be proud of his skill Aztec. Both writing and reading were therefore specialized skills, and it is no wonder that the mass of the population remained illiterate. Writing was not taught in the schools attended by plebeian children, and indeed the ordinary man would have no need for it. In a bureaucratic and centralized society the common man received his instructions from above, from the priests who looked after the religious side of his life, or from the secular officials who were drawn from the nobility and had the benefit of a calmecac education. Most modern day Mexicans (and people of Mexican descent in other countries) are mestizos, of mixed indigenous and European Spanish ancestry. During the 16th century the racial composition of Mexico began to change from one that featured distinct indigenous (Mexicas and members of the many other Mexican indigenous groups) and immigrant (mostly Spanish) populations, to the population composed primarily of mestizos that is found in modern day Mexico. The Nahuatl language is today spoken by 1.5 million people, mostly in mountainous areas in the states of central Mexico. Local dialects of Spanish, Mexican Spanish generally, and the Spanish language worldwide have all been influenced, in varying degrees, by Nahuatl. Some Nahuatl words (most notably chocolate and tomato) have been borrowed through Spanish into other languages around the world. Mexico City was built on the ruins of Tenochtitlan, making it one of the oldest living cities of America. Many of its districts and natural landmarks retain their original Nahuatl names. Many other cities and towns in Mexico and Central America have also retained their Nahuatl names (whether or not they were originally Mexica or even Nahuatl-speaking towns). A number of town names are hybrids of Nahuatl and Spanish. Mexican cuisine continues to be based on and flavored by agricultural products contributed by the MexicasAztecs and Mesoamerica, most of which retain some form of their original Nahuatl names. The cuisine has also become a popular part of the cuisine of the United States and other countries around the world, typically altered to suit various national tastes. The modern Mexican flag bears the emblem of the Mexica migration legend. Mexicos premier religious icon, the Virgin of Guadalupe has certain similarities to the Mexica earth mother goddess Tonantzin. For the 1986 FIFA World Cup Adidas designed the official match ball to show in its triades Aztec architectural and mural designs. Modern Views of the Aztec Culture Laurette Sejourne, a French anthropologist, wrote about Aztec and Mesoamerican spirituality. Her depiction of the Aztecs as a spiritual people was so compelling that new religions have been formed based on her writings. Some parts of her work have been adopted by esoteric groups, searching for occult teachings of the pre-Columbian religions. Sejourne never endorsed any of these groups. Miguel Leon-Portilla also idealizes the Aztec culture, especially in his early writings. Others, such as Antonio Velazco, have transformed the writings by Sejourne and Leon-Portilla into a religious movement. Antonio Velasco Pina has written three books, Tlacaelel, El Azteca entre los Aztecas, La mujer dormida debe dar a luz, and Regina. When mixed with the currents of Neopaganism, these books resulted in a new religious movement called Mexicanista. This movement called for a return to the spirituality of the Aztecs. It is argued that, with this return, Mexico will become the next center of power. This religious movement mixes Mesoamerican cults with Hindu esoterism. The Mexicanista movement reached the peak of its popularity in the 1990s.
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